Basic Glossary in ELE

 L1 and L2

In the context of language learning, "L1" refers to a person's first language, or their native language, while "L2" refers to a second language that a person is learning.

L1 is the language that a person has acquired naturally and has been exposed to since birth, usually from family, friends, and the community in which they grow up. L2, on the other hand, is a language that a person is learning as an additional language, either for personal or professional reasons.

The distinction between L1 and L2 is important in language teaching and learning because the two languages can influence each other in complex ways. For example, a learner's L1 can both help and hinder their acquisition of an L2, depending on the similarities and differences between the two languages. Understanding the relationship between L1 and L2 can help language learners and teachers identify areas of strength and weakness and develop strategies for effective language learning.

ESL and EFL

ESL and EFL are both acronyms used in the field of teaching English as a foreign language, but they refer to different contexts.

ESL stands for "English as a Second Language" and refers to teaching English to non-native speakers who are living in an English-speaking country. These students are immersed in an English-speaking environment and may need to learn English to study, work, or communicate in their new surroundings.

EFL stands for "English as a Foreign Language" and refers to teaching English to non-native speakers who are living in a country where English is not the primary language. These students are learning English as a subject in school or as part of their own personal or professional development and may not have as much exposure to English in their everyday lives.

While both ESL and EFL involve teaching English to non-native speakers, the context in which the language is being learned can have a significant impact on the teaching approach and the specific challenges that students may face.

TESOL

TESOL stands for "Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages." It is a broad term used to describe the field of teaching English as a foreign language to non-native speakers. TESOL encompasses a range of contexts, including teaching English to students in their home countries (EFL) or in English-speaking countries (ESL), as well as teaching English for specific purposes, such as business or academic English.

TESOL involves teaching students the four main language skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing, as well as grammar and vocabulary. TESOL teachers use a variety of methods and techniques to help students develop their language abilities, such as communicative language teaching, task-based learning, and content-based instruction.

TESOL is a growing field, as the demand for English language education continues to increase around the world. TESOL teachers may work in a variety of settings, including schools, language institutes, community centres, and private tutoring.

CALL

CALL stands for "Computer-Assisted Language Learning." It refers to the use of technology to support and enhance the teaching and learning of a foreign language. CALL can involve a range of technologies, including software programs, apps, online tools, and digital resources.

CALL can provide a range of benefits to language learners, including the ability to access authentic materials in the target language, practice language skills in a variety of contexts, receive immediate feedback on their performance, and interact with other language learners and native speakers.

CALL can also provide benefits to language teachers, such as the ability to customize materials and activities to meet the needs of individual learners, track students' progress, and provide more engaging and interactive learning experiences.

CALL has become increasingly popular in recent years, and there are now many different tools and resources available for language learners and teachers. Some examples of CALL tools include language learning apps like Duolingo and Babbel, digital flashcard programs like Anki, and language exchange platforms like HelloTalk and Tandem.

ICT

ICT stands for "Information and Communication Technology." It is a broad term that refers to the use of digital technologies to manage and communicate information. ICT encompasses a range of technologies, including computers, software, the internet, and mobile devices.

ICT has had a significant impact on education, including language education, by providing new tools and resources for teaching and learning. In the field of language education, ICT has enabled the development of digital resources and online learning platforms, as well as tools for language assessment and feedback.

Some examples of ICT tools and resources for language education include language learning apps, online dictionaries and translation tools, virtual language exchange platforms, and digital language assessment tools.

ICT has also changed the way that language teachers and learners communicate and collaborate. Through online communication tools, learners can now connect with other language learners and native speakers from around the world, practising their language skills and gaining exposure to authentic language use in different contexts.

Overall, ICT has provided a range of new opportunities for language learning and teaching, enabling learners to access language resources and connect with others in ways that were not possible before.

CLT

CLT stands for "Communicative Language Teaching." It is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes the use of language for communication and focuses on developing learners' ability to communicate in real-world situations.

CLT was developed in the 1970s as a response to more traditional approaches to language teaching that focused on grammar rules and memorization of vocabulary. In CLT, the focus is on developing learners' ability to use language to accomplish communicative tasks, such as making requests, giving opinions, and expressing needs.

CLT involves a range of activities and techniques designed to promote communicative competence, including role-plays, discussions, problem-solving tasks, and project-based learning. CLT also emphasizes the importance of developing learners' listening and speaking skills, as well as their ability to interpret and produce written texts.

In CLT, the teacher's role is that of a facilitator or guide, rather than an authority figure. The teacher provides opportunities for learners to use language in meaningful ways and encourages them to take an active role in their learning.

CLT has become a popular approach to language teaching around the world and is often seen as a more engaging and effective way to teach language than traditional grammar-focused approaches.

EAP

EAP stands for "English for Academic Purposes." It refers to the use of English language instruction to prepare non-native speakers of English for study at English-speaking universities and colleges.

EAP programs focus on developing the language skills and knowledge needed for academic studies, such as reading academic texts, writing research papers, giving presentations, and participating in academic discussions. EAP courses also aim to familiarize students with the expectations and conventions of academic study in English-speaking countries.

EAP courses can vary in length and intensity and may be offered as part of a larger academic program or as standalone courses. They may be offered at different levels to meet the needs of learners with different levels of English proficiency.

EAP courses are often taught by instructors with expertise in both English language teaching and academic disciplines and may include collaboration with academic departments to ensure that the course content is relevant and applicable to the needs of students.

Overall, EAP programs are designed to support the academic success of non-native speakers of English and to help them meet the language requirements of their chosen academic programs.

ESP

ESP stands for "English for Specific Purposes." It refers to the use of English language instruction to meet the specific needs of learners who have a particular focus or purpose for learning English.

ESP courses are designed to develop the language skills and knowledge needed for specific contexts, such as business, law, medicine, engineering, or tourism. ESP courses focus on the language, skills, and knowledge that are relevant to the learners' specific needs and goals and may be taught by instructors with expertise in the relevant field.

ESP courses may include specialized vocabulary, language functions, and discourse patterns that are specific to the learners' area of focus. They may also involve instruction on the cultural aspects of the learners' field, as well as on the conventions of communication in that field.

ELL

ELL stands for "English Language Learner." It is a term used to describe individuals who are learning English as a second or additional language, and who may not yet have achieved full proficiency in English.

            ELLs can include individuals of any age and from any linguistic background, but the term is most commonly used in the context of education, where it is used to refer to students who are non-native speakers of English and who require support to develop their English language proficiency.

ELLs may be enrolled in specialized language education programs or may receive support through mainstream classroom instruction, depending on their level of English proficiency and the educational context in which they are learning.

Overall, the term ELL is used to acknowledge the diverse linguistic backgrounds and experiences of individuals who are learning English as an additional language, and to highlight the need for targeted support and resources to ensure their success in education and other contexts.

PPP

PPP stands for "Presentation, Practice, and Production." It is a teaching method that is commonly used in language education to introduce new language items or structures to learners and to help them develop their understanding and use of those items.

In the PPP method, the teacher begins by presenting the language item or structure to the learners in a clear and structured way, often using visual aids or examples to aid comprehension. The learners then engage in controlled practice activities to reinforce their understanding and use of the new language, often under the guidance and correction of the teacher. Finally, the learners move on to freer production activities, in which they use the new language item in more open-ended or communicative contexts.

The PPP method is designed to gradually build learners' understanding and confidence with new language items and to provide opportunities for both teacher-guided practice and student-led communication. It is a flexible method that can be adapted to different language items and learning contexts and can be combined with other teaching methods to provide a well-rounded language learning experience.

TBL

TBL stands for "Task-Based Language Teaching." It is a teaching method that is focused on using real-life tasks or activities to teach language to learners.

In TBL, the teacher selects or designs tasks that require the learners to use language to accomplish a specific goal or solve a problem. The learners work together to complete the task, and the teacher observes and provides support and feedback as needed. After the task is completed, the teacher and the learners reflect on the language used during the task and discuss how it could be improved or expanded in future similar tasks.

TBL is based on the idea that learners learn language best when it is presented in meaningful and purposeful contexts, and when they are actively engaged in using language to achieve a goal or complete a task. It is often used in communicative language teaching, where the focus is on developing learners' ability to use language in real-life situations.

TBL can be applied to a wide range of language items and skills and can be used in different learning contexts and with learners of different ages and levels. It is a flexible method that can be adapted to suit the needs of different learners and teaching situations.

IELTS

IELTS stands for "International English Language Testing System." It is a standardized test of English language proficiency that is used for admission to higher education programs and immigration purposes in many English-speaking countries.

The IELTS test assesses a test-taker’s proficiency in four key language skills: listening, reading, writing, and speaking. It is offered in two formats: Academic and General Training. The Academic format is designed for students who want to study at the university level or for professional registration, while the General Training format is intended for people seeking employment or immigration to English-speaking countries.

The IELTS test is scored on a scale from 1 to 9, with 9 being the highest score. Test-takers receive a separate score for each of the four language skills, as well as an overall band score.

The IELTS test is widely recognized and accepted by universities, colleges, and employers in many English-speaking countries, and is often used as a requirement for admission or employment. It is administered by the British Council, IDP Education, and Cambridge Assessment English, and is offered in locations around the world.

TOEFL

TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) is a standardized test used to assess the English language proficiency of non-native English speakers. It measures the ability of individuals to understand and use English in an academic setting and is commonly used as a requirement for admission to universities and other educational institutions in English-speaking countries. The test includes sections on reading, listening, speaking, and writing.

The PPP Method

The PPP Method in language teaching is a common way to introduce new words and concepts to learners. This method and technique are very useful in the EFL classroom. It is a three-step lesson plan and teaching approach that helps the student learn, understand, and practice new concepts and vocabulary. 

As mentioned earlier, there are three stages in a PPP lesson, i.e., Presentation, Practice, and Production.

Presentation

The first stage is the presentation of an aspect of language in a context that students are familiar with. 

E.g., The teacher presents a new word, an event which involves the presentation of pronunciation and spelling in a meaningful context.

Practice

Students will be given an activity that gives them plenty of opportunities to practice the new aspect of language and become familiar with it while receiving limited and appropriate assistance from the teacher.

E.g., The teacher allows the students to practice the new word through controlled activities, such as worksheets or question and answer activities and makes sure the student has understood the vocabulary and usage properly.

Production

This is the stage, when the students will use the language in context, in an activity set up by the teacher who will be giving minimal assistance.

For example, this is where the students get a chance to use the new word or phrase originally and to relate it to their knowledge and experiences. These three stages of a PPP lesson help the student to consolidate the new word in their mental vocabulary bank.

Each stage of the Presentation, Practice and Production lesson must be planned well to be effective. It is a highly flexible approach to teaching and there are many different activities a teacher can employ for each stage.

Presentation can include mime, drawing and audio. It will be more effective, if the teacher can engage with the students’ different senses to get across the meaning of the new word, using visual, kinesthetic (movement) and audio techniques.

It is also important to make sure that students have understood the new word before encouraging them to practise it. It is often fun and highly effective for students to play games to practise vocabulary and to produce it.

The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner by Alan Sillitoe

Alan Sillitoe (1928- 2010) was an English novelist, poet, short story writer, children's book writer, playwright and social critic. He was born in Nottingham. He was one of the Angry Young Men of the 1950s and a famous working-class novelist. He shattered the sentimental portrayal of working-class life through his major works ‘Saturday Night and Sunday Morning’, ‘The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner’, ‘Key to the Door’, ‘The Ragman's Daughter’, ‘The Flame of Life’, ‘A Start in Life’ and many others. But his fame rests on two of his major works, ‘Saturday Night and Sunday Morning’ (novel) and ‘The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner’, (novella) the title story of a collection of short fiction.

Sillitoe is at his best in the portrayal of working-class life that struggles for identity and above all the theme of rebellion and isolation that dominate his work. The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner has proved to be one of the most successful explorations of the theme of rebellion.

          The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner is a short story by Alan Sillitoe, published in 1959 as part of a short story collection of the same name. The central character Colin Smith is a poor, 17-year-old Nottingham teenager. He lived in a miserable home in a working-class area and has nothing much to aspire for. He is put in a borstal [a type of prison for young criminals or reform school] for a petty crime of stealing a hundred and fifty pounds from a baker’s shop. 

          In the borstal, the boy turns his attention to long-distance running as a method of both emotional and physical escape from his present situation. He was noticed by the governor/warden and has been chosen to represent the Borstal in a competition for the All-England Championship. The governor wants him to win the race. He is permitted to train himself outside the fences for a long-distance competition.

          Much of the story recounts his private thoughts on those runs, culminating in the struggle between being awarded a light workload if he wins versus not wanting to obey the borstal administration. We are introduced to Smith as he runs in the early morning chill even before sunrise. Running becomes a metaphor for thinking. Smith starts seeing everything clearly as he runs through.

          We see a clear streak of defiance against the authorities throughout the story. When the day of the marathon arrives, Smith quickly sizes up who the opponent school's best runner is and who he must beat. With the proud Governor looking at Smith, the gun is fired. Smith soon overtakes Ranleigh's star runner and has a comfortable lead with a sure win.

          But at the same moment, a series of jarring images run through his mind - scenes from his life at home and his mother’s neglect and infidelity, his father's dead body, stern lectures from detectives, police, the governor, the hopelessness of the near future, and the hypocrisy of the authority. All these make him change his mind. These flashbacks reveal the complex motivation for Smith's decision and justify his rebellious behaviour to lose the race. After speeding ahead of the other runners, he deliberately stops a few meters short of the finishing line, though well ahead and easily able to win. He stops there without doing anything, much to the disappointment of the upper-class people who had made bets on his victory. The deliberate decision to lose the "big race" reflects Smith's antagonism toward the governor and other establishment symbols.

          This is how Smith protests the injustices done to him. By losing the race deliberately, Smith demonstrates his free spirit and independence. The response of the borstal authorities to Smith’s action is heavy-handed (without considering his feelings) and there is a lot of manual labour awaiting him. However, he has no regrets. He knew what he was doing when he did it.

          Long-distance running gives Smith the ability to freely escape from society without the pressures of a team. Smith uses running as a way to mentally reflect, allowing himself to give clarity to confusing thoughts and share them with the reader. Through running, Smith begins to understand and become aware of the class divisions in Britain.

          Rebellion and isolation dominate this story. As Smith wrestles with his life’s meaning and direction, he comes to understand and defend his defiance [refusing to obey] of authority. He isolates himself through running. This enables him to think freely and clearly. It can be said that the entire story is about if one can retain one’s own individuality. Smith’s most significant discovery is this interpretation of an “honest life” because as he stops running, he stops listening to any kind of authority.

          Literature about running has changed throughout history. The short story "The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner" by Alan Sillitoe gave this genre a political perspective that changed the vision of a literary "runner". Sillitoe's character Smith uses running as a way to mentally reflect. The action of running allows Smith to give clarity to his political insights and the ability to share them with his readers.  Running is used as a metaphor to suggest a method of running away from society which also allows the narrator to reflect on the society, he is living in.

          Sillitoe uses running in his story as a means of isolation. Smith’s long-distance running is a solitary action. Therefore, it allows him to begin to understand and become aware of the class divisions in Britain.

          Running is also used as a metaphor by Sillitoe to give Smith the ability to escape from the reality of his class level in society. The use of this sport gives Smith the ability to escape from his life as a member of the working-class poor. Sillitoe has used running to give his character a chance to reflect upon his social status and also to escape from the reality that the poor in Britain are faced with.  Long-distance running gives the character the ability to freely escape from society without the pressures of a team, which may be found in other athletic stories.

A Far Cry from Africa by Derek Walcott

A FAR CRY FROM AFRICA

 Derek Walcott

Derek Alton Walcott (1930-2017) was a Caribbean poet and playwright who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1992. The major theme that Derek Walcott discusses in ‘A Far Cry from Africa’ (1962) is split identity, as evidenced by the ambivalence of the speaker who has connections to both Africa and England. He had both white and black grandparents.

The poem explores the history of a specific uprising in Kenya (Mau Mau Uprising) then occupied by British in the 1952-60. Certain members of the local Kikuyu tribe, (Mau Mau Fighters) fought a violent 8-year-long campaign against the settlers, whom they saw as illegal trespassers on their land.

                     

     Stanza 1

 A wind is ruffling the tawny pelt

 Of Africa. Kikuyu, quick as flies,

 Batten upon the bloodstreams of the veldt.

A breeze ruffles or lifts Africa’s brown-yellow fur of Africa. (The brownish yellow is the common colour of African landscape). People from the Kikuyu tribe fasten themselves to the veins of the grassland, as fast and lively as flies.

Africa is compared to an animal with yellow-brown fur.  Kikuyu is the name of a native tribe in Kenya. They are compared to flies- buzzing around the animal ‘Africa’. They are feeding on blood, which is plenty like streams.

Pelt- the skin of an animal with fur on it.

Veldt- (African plain) flat open land with grass and no trees.

Corpses are scattered through a paradise.

Only the worm, colonel of carrion, cries:

 "Waste no compassion on these separate dead!"

The landscape of Africa is littered with corpses. The poet compares his land to a paradise. Only the worm, who is the colonel of decaying dead bodies cries out: “Don’t feel sympathy for each of these dead people.” The dead are irrelevant. The victims somehow got what they deserved.

Carrion- the decaying bodies of dead animals.

 Statistics justify and scholars seize

 The salients of colonial policy.

People use statistics to justify colonialism, scholars jump on different facts about colonialism to debate it. Walcott is describing the Mau Mau uprising against British colonists in Kenya during the 1950s. At first, the poet blames the victims, now he blames those who forced the colonial system onto Kenya and polarized the people.  

 What is that to the white child hacked in bed?

 To savages, expendable as Jews?

What do these abstract discussion matter to a white child of a settler family who was chopped to death (murdered) in bed? What does it matter if the native Africans, who are treated as savages, are seen as worthless as Jews in Nazi concentration camps? (Their reasons will not matter to the ‘white child’ who has been murdered because of his white colour, in retaliation by Mau Mau fighters, who are treated as savages.) The word ‘savage’ is used to present the British colonialist’s point of view.

Hacked- hit, cut, chopped

Expendable- think it is acceptable if they are killed.

  Stanza 2

 Threshed out by beaters, the long rushes break

 In a white dust of ibises whose cries

 Have wheeled since civilization's dawn

 From the parched river or beast-teeming plain.

In the second stanza, Walcott returns to the images of African wildlife. The poet describes the old hunting custom of natives walking in a line through the long grass and beating it to flush out the prey.

When the beaters (farmers) thresh the rushes (grass-like tall plants), those plants break and ibises fly out of them and fill the air, like white dust. They fly in a circle crying out, which they have done from the beginning of civilization. The call of ibises is as old as civilization, heard from the dried rivers to the great plains where there are plenty of animals.

Beater – a person employed to drive birds to an open space, so they can be shot for sport. 

Rush- a tall plant-like grass that grows near water. (Its long thin stem can be dried and used for making baskets or seats or chairs.)

Ibis- /aibis/ a bird with a long neck, long legs, and long beak, that live near water.

 The violence of beast on beast is read

 As natural law, but upright man

 Seeks his divinity by inflicting pain.

We consider the animals’ violence towards each other as natural. They kill each other for food. But men who perfected their skill of hunting extend their violent act for other purposes- using force to exert control and to prove superiority over others. They seek divinity by deciding who lives and who dies.

 Delirious as these worried beasts, his wars

 Dance to the tightened carcass of a drum,

 While he calls courage still that native dread

Of the white peace contracted by the dead.

People are as crazy and delirious as these wild animals. Their wars are like a bloody dance to the beat of drums made of corpses’ skins. (A drum is made of animal hide stretched over a cylinder.) The native Kenyans say they are valiant or courageous. But it is just the fear of death- the white colonizers will kill them and call it peace. For the whites, peace has not been the result of a compromise with an opponent. It is a situation arrived at when the opposition has been crushed or they cannot resist anymore.

Stanza 3

 Again brutish necessity wipes its hands

 Upon the napkin of a dirty cause, again

 A waste of our compassion, as with Spain,

 The gorilla wrestles with the superman.

Once again, the brutal idea of necessity is used to justify violence.  It’s just like someone trying to clean their bloody hands with a dirty napkin. Dirty napkin represents the dirty causes everyone is fighting for. It is a waste of our sympathy just like the atrocities that occurred during the Spanish civil war. As in racist stereotypes, the situation with the Kenyans and white colonizers is much like an ape (Africans) wrestling with a superhero (Europeans).

 I who am poisoned with the blood of both,

Where shall I turn, divided to the vein?

I who have cursed

The drunken officer of British rule, how choose

Between this Africa and the English tongue I love?

He is both of English and African descent and carries the blood of both parties in his vein. He opposed British colonial rule, which is like a drunken army or police officer (rules are enforced by drunken officers). How can he choose between his deep connection to Africa and his love for the English language? It is very hard.

 Betray them both, or give back what they give?

 How can I face such slaughter and be cool?

 How can I turn from Africa and live?

Either betray both of them and give them back what they have given. How can he face all this violence and remain cool and calm? How can he abandon Africa and keep on living? Thus, the poem ends with a series of questions.

 

Written against the backdrop of the Mau Mau Uprising (1952-1960), in which the native Kenyans fought against the British colonial army in the mid-20th century, the poem captures a confused mind as both the British and Kenyans resort to violence in the struggle. The inability of the speaker to side with any side during the conflict is because of the gruesome nature of the uprising and the counterretaliation. In fact, it is the legacy of colonialism which has forced the speaker into this split psyche, forever divided by the colonizer and colonized. Associated with this main theme are topics like anxiety, isolation, cruelty, violence, religion, and love.

Themes

1.               Violence and Cruelty

The poem explores the history of a specific uprising in Kenya (Mau Mau Uprising) then occupied by British in the 1952-60. Mau Mau violence was directed at the whites, animals kept by whites and other Kikuyus who refused to join Mau Mau.

2.             Culture Clash

There are several cultural clashes in the poem. Eg. The clash between the culture of those outside the uprising and those killed by it, outsiders (scholars) with the luxury of judging the conflict and insiders (victims) for whom no explanation is sufficient. There is a clash within the poet- he is pro-African and pro-Kikuyu but anti-Mau Mau. He is pro-English (culture and language) but anti-British (Colonialism).

 

 

 

 

I ASK MY MOTHER TO SING by Li Young Lee

 I ASK MY MOTHER TO SING

Li Young Lee

    Li Young Lee (1957 -  ) is a Chinese American poet, born in Jakarta, Indonesia to Chinese parents who are political exiles. He lives in Chicago. Li Young Lee's poetry is greatly influenced by classic Chinese poets - Li Bai and Du Fu. Having learned at an early age about loss and exile, Lee gives a clear voice to the solemn and extraordinary beauty found within humanity. Most of his writings contain the elements of his family history, childhood, and individuality. The recurring themes of his poems are simplicity and silence.

    "I asked My Mother to Sing" is taken from the collection Rose (1986). It is a postmodern autobiographical lyrical poem filled with emotion and the power of memory and nostalgia. The poem is written from the perspective of a young man who recalls the ancient traditions of his family.

I Ask My Mother to Sing

 She begins, and my grandmother joins her.

 Mother and daughter sing like young girls.

 If my father were alive, he would play

 his accordion and sway like a boat.

    The speaker asks his mother to sing. His mom and grandma sing. The speaker says they sing like “young girls" (Line 2). The simile ‘like young girls’ suggests their singing is vibrant and playful. The speaker's dad is absent because he has passed away. The speaker says that if his dad were alive, he would play his accordion and sway back and forth like a boat swaying on water.

Accordion - A musical instrument played by stretching and squeezing with the hands to work a central bellow that blows air over metal reeds, the melody and chords being sounded by buttons or keys.

 I've never been in Peking, or the Summer Palace,

 nor stood on the great Stone Boat to watch

 the rain begin on Kuen Ming Lake, the picnickers

 running away in the grass.

    The speaker has never been to Peking, (which is another name for Beijing), the capital Of China. Nor has he gone to the majestic Summer Palace, the Stone Boat pavilion, and the Kuen Ming Lake. He's never heard the rain on the lake nor viewed the picnickers on the grass running away from the rain.

Peking - Another name for Beijing, used before the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Stone Boat - Also known as the Marble Boat (Land Boat) or Bu Ji Zhou (Unmoored Boat), this structure built in marble is located in the northwest corner of Kunming Lake and close to the western foot of Longevity Hill at the Summer Palace, Beijing. It is built during the period of Emperor Qianlong (1711 - 1799).

Kuen Ming Lake - The central lake on the grounds of the Summer Palace in Beijing, China. Together with Longevity Hill, Kunming Lake forms the key landscape features of the Summer Palace gardens, Beijing.

 But I love to hear it sung;

 how the waterlilies fill with rain until

 they overturn, spilling water into water,

 then rock back, and fill with more.

    Although the speaker hasn't experienced the sights and sounds first-hand, he loves to hear his family sing about these places ("loves to hear it sung" Line 9). His mom and grandma are singing about their memories from China. Their memories are direct experiences. The poet’s experiences are indirect, as he learns from listening to their song.  

    There is superb imagery of the leaves of waterlilies- water fills the leaves of waterlilies until they overturn, and then they rock back to fill more water again.  

Waterlilies - A family of flowering plants, used as an objective correlative symbolising the feelings of the speaker's mother and grandmother.

 Both women have begun to cry.

 But neither stops her song.

    In the final stanza, the mom and grandma have started weeping. Despite their tears, they continue their song. The poem concludes with mixed emotions. The final couplet conveys persistence and sadness. Both mother and grandmother represent waterlilies.

Analysis

Lee asks his mother and grandmother to sing about China, the native country of his parents. The narrator of the poem wants them to sing because he wants to bring images to his life of places where he has never been before in China. The poem also brings in with nostalgia the memory of his father who used to play the accordion with them when he was alive. The poet attempts to get the reader involved in the narrative which consists of his memories and emotions. In short, in a bittersweet sad tone, by fusing memory, family, culture and nature, Lee's poem signifies the immigrant experience of loss and memory.

The poem is significant as it gives readers a glimpse into the life of immigrants. It also highlights the importance of family and connection to one’s culture and homeland. Respect for one’s traditional values, the transience of life, and the lasting impacts of memories are the major themes of the poem. The poem accounts for the speaker’s feelings for his family; he recalls how every member of his family plays an active role in keeping the family tradition alive. To dive deep into the time that had slipped from his hands, he requests his mother to sing so that he can relive his childhood memories once again. 

Poetic Devices

1. Simile

        Mother and daughter sing like young girls.

2. Assonance

        But I love to hear it sung;

        how the waterlilies fill with rain until

        they overturn, spilling water into water,

        then rock back, and fill with more.

3. Imagery

        How the waterlilies fill with rain until

        they overturn, spilling water into water,

        then rock back, and fill with more.

4. Enjambment

        If my father were alive, he would play

        his accordion and sway like a boat.

Themes

1. Memory and Tradition

The song of the speaker connects him to his past and helps him keep in touch with places and traditions he has never personally witnessed.

2. Power of Art

The poem illustrates the power of art in preserving the past and bringing people together. The song fills in his family with their memories of the past, as waterlilies fill with rainwater until they overturn spilling water to water. When the leaves are emptied of water, the lilies rock back and fill with more rainwater. Likewise, his mother and grandmother continue singing though the memories make them cry.

3. Exile Life

Poet’s parents were Chinese exiles living in Indonesia. The poem illustrates their longing for their homeland, to which they cannot return. They don’t stop singing about their homeland because they prefer the pain of homesickness to forget their heritage.

Swimming Chenango Lake by Charles Tomlinson

 Charles Tomlinson is an English poet whose best work expresses his perceptions of the world with clarity and sensitivity. Less concerned with people and emotions than with the outside world, Tomlinson’s poetry has much in common with that of the American poets Wallace Stevens and Marianne Moore. The poem ‘Swimming the Chenango Lake’ was published in the year 1969 in the collection ‘The Way of a World’. It’s a well-known and frequently anthologized poem.

 Swimming Chenango Lake

Winter will bar the swimmer soon.
   He reads the water’s autumnal hestitations
A wealth of ways: it is jarred,
    It is astir already despite its steadiness,
Where the first leaves at the first
    Tremor of the morning air have dropped
Anticipating him, launching their imprints
    Outwards in eccentric, overlapping circles.

The poet begins the poem by saying that the imminent winter season shall stop the swimmer soon. The swimmer swims in the lake in autumn season. The poet focuses on the ongoing changes in the lake as the winter approaches. He can read or feel the autumnal hesitation of water in an abundant way. The water is jarred. It has an unpleasant effect. The winter is yet to arrive. But the water already started to prepare for winter. Despite its steadiness the water is aroused by the fall or dropping of leaves early in the morning. Wherever the leaves imprint their fall, overlapping circles are formed.

There is a geometry of water, for this
    Squares off the clouds’ redundances
And sets them floating in a nether atmosphere
    All angles and elongations: every tree
Appears a cypress as it stretches there
    And every bush that shows the season,
A shaft of fire. It is a geometry and not
    A fantasia of distorting forms, but each
Liquid variation answerable to the theme
    It makes away from, plays before:                                                          It is a consistency, the grain of the pulsating flow.

Shapes of Geometry appears in water by the fallen leaves; overlapping circles, squares, angles and elongations- each circle or squares become longer. Through reflection, the clouds in the sky form various shapes in water. Every tree appears in water as cypress because they stretch in the moving water. Every seasonal bush nearby the lake is reflected in water as a shaft or arrow of fire. It’s pure and precise geometry, and not a fantasia of distorting forms- not distorting figures in a cartoon. But each variation formed in the water is answerable to the theme which is consistent.

    But he has looked long enough, and now
Body must recall the eye to its dependence
    As he scissors the waterscape apart
And sways it to tatters. Its coldness
    Holding him to itself, he grants the grasp,
For to swim is also to take hold
    On water’s meaning, to move in its embrace
And to be, between grasp and grasping, free.

The swimmer has looked long enough to the water, but now he must remind his eyes about its dependence or the body must order the eye to its dependence. He swims across the lake like scissors cutting a piece of cloth apart and the cloth sways like badly torn pieces. The coldness of water is holding him in its grasp, “for to swim is also to take hold on water’s meaning”. The swimmer makes a place for himself in the sustaining element of water, at the same time he surrenders himself to its embrace. Yet he tries to move in water’s embrace and wanted to be free ‘between the grasp and grasping’. Swimming is at once ‘to take hold on water’s meaning’ and ‘to move in its embrace’.

    He reaches in-and-through to that space
The body is heir to, making a where
    In water, a possession to be relinquished
Willingly at each stroke. The image he has torn
    Flows-to behind him, healing itself,
Lifting and lengthening, splayed like the feathers
    Down an immense wing whose darkening spread
Shadows his solitariness: alone, he is unnamed
    By this baptism, where only Chenango bears a name
In a lost language he begins to construe —
    A speech of densities and derisions, of half-
Replies to the questions his body must frame
    Frog wise across the all but penetrable element.

He swims across the lake and reaches the space which belongs to him. He owns the space. This possession is relinquished by each further stroke. Though he tears the waterscape by his swimming forward, the torn image of water merge back behind him ‘healing itself’ by spreading wide apart. The poet compares this with the spreading of a giant wing which cast shadows on his loneliness. The swim causes a transformation on the swimmer too and he seems to be baptized into a new self, by shedding off all his former identities. As he spends time in the lake, he begins to understand the lost language of the lake. It is a language of densities and derisions, of the half replies to the questions his body would pose as he swims like a frog across the water.

Human, he fronts it and, human, he draws back
    From the interior cold, the mercilessness
That yet shows a kind of mercy sustaining him.
    The last sun of the year is drying his skin
Above a surface a mere mosaic of tiny shatterings,
    Where a wind is unscaping all images in the flowing obsidian,
The going-elsewhere of ripples incessantly shaping.

Human faces or draws back from the mercilessness of interior cold of the lake. But he feels a kind of mercy the lake shows which sustains him in the water. As the wind incessantly shaping ripples and various images on the water (the flowing obsidian), above the lake he dries his skin in the last sun of the year.

    The swimming is a metaphor which has wider connotations like man’s struggle against the elements of nature to achieve victory. The swimmer becomes part of the element that supports him, part of an ever-changing geometry through which he slices, and which then corrects itself as he moves past. One should move beyond oneself leaving no trace. Swimming frees one from the world. The contact between the swimmer and the lake water is intimate, sustaining, and yet threatening to the swimmer. The water gives support only because the swimmer keeps moving, keeps reaching out in it, knowing all the time that this fluid environment will not sustain him forever. As he invades the lake, the water sways to tatters, but heals itself behind him. He realizes the baffling nature of the water, which gives only 'half -replies' to his questions. 

Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam

                                                 THE RUBAIYAT

 Omar Khayyam

 

Omar Khayyam (1048-1131)

Omar Khayyam was a Persian mathematician, philosopher, poet, and astronomer. He belonged to the schools of Islamic mathematics, Persian poetry, and Persian philosophy. He was born in Nishapur, Northeast Persia. He lived during the great Seljuk Empire. He wrote poetry mainly in 4 lined stanzas or quatrains.

The Title "Rubaiyat"

'Rubai' is the Farsi word for a poem composed in 4 lines [a quatrain]. So Rubaiyat is the plural of rubai. And Rubaiyat means a compilation of quatrains. Khayyam's poetry was introduced to the English reading world by the English writer and translator, Edward Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald in his 1859 translation [7 centuries later], gave it the title, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. 

Rubaiyat and its theme

It is arguably the most famous Persian literary work in the world. The brevity of human life forms the major theme; life is too short. So, this blissful visit is too short and when our time comes, we too shall wither away like a fully bloomed flower or vanish into some unknown corner of this world like a gentle breeze.

The poet tells us that there is no use in worrying about the unborn tomorrow and dead yesterday when today is so sweet. What we need to think about is only the present moment which is too short. So, enjoy the present because death is for sure. It is the ultimate leveller, a sort of inevitability from where the return is not possible. So, enjoy the present before we too settle into dust.

Edward Fitzgerald called Khayyam's philosophy an Epicurean philosophy in the preface of his work. Later thinkers like Nietzsche, Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Satre too reflected the same ideas in their Existential philosophy. The poem has been narrated in the first-person point of view. The narrator of the poem is an unknown person. 

Summary of Rubaiyat 68 to 73 Quatrains. 

The Rubaiyat

68

 That ev'n my buried Ashes such a Snare

 Of Perfume shall fling up into the Air,

 As not a True Believer passing by

 But shall be overtaken unaware.

The poet says that when he dies, he wants to be wrapped in grape leaves and buried in a sweet vineyard. Thus buried, his body will throw up such a sweet scent into the air. It will convert even the most devout passerby to a believer in the faith of the Grape.

The speaker is a worshipper of wine, he wants to drink vine till the end of his life. When buried after his death, the remains of his body would throw up a sweet aroma into the air. When passersby pass by his grave, they would turn into a worshipper of the vine, even if he is a true devotee of God.

69

 Indeed the Idols I have loved so long

 Have done my Credit in Men's Eye much wrong;

 Have drown 'd my Honour in a shallow Cup,

 And sold my Reputation for a Song.

Surely, the idols [which are earthly things] he had loved long caused his credibility to go wrong in the eyes of the public. Merry-making and drinking have made him lose his honour and reputation in the eyes of men.  

The third line of this quatrain means that he has lost his honour through drinking wine. ‘Shallow cup’ means a small amount of vine. ‘Sold my reputation for a song’ means he has lost his reputation through his merry-making.

70

 Indeed, indeed, Repentance oft before

 I swore - but was I sober when I swore?

 And then and then came spring, and Rose-in-hand

 My thread-bare Penitence apiece tore.

Surely, he had sworn to repent many times, but he was not serious even once while making that promise. Then the spring season came. His weak penitence was torn into pieces by the present pleasures.

He intended to mend his ways often enough, but never quite made it! The Spring and the Rose are here symbols of the attraction back to his old ways.

71

 And much as wine has play'd the Infidel,

 And robb'd me of my Robe of Honour - well,

 I often wonder what the Vintners buy

 One half so precious as the Goods they sell.

Besides, he would gladly lose his honour in exchange for wine. In his eyes wine is so precious, its sellers make a loss even when they sell it for a great profit because they end up parting from wine.

Wine is a forbidden drink in the Islamic world, which is tasted only by infidels. That infidel wine made him an ‘infidel’ to the outer forms of religion and social order.

 72

Alas, that Spring should vanish with the Rose

 That Youth's sweet-scented Manuscript should close!

 The Nightingale that in the Branches sang,

 Ah, whence, and whither flown again, who knows!

The spring should go away with the roses. The sweet-scented manuscript of youth should close. The nightingale that has been singing in the branch of our life, has just flown away. Who knows where has it gone?

As the night (and the poem’s end) approaches, the speaker’s tone turns contemplative. He returns to the metaphors of the nightingale, rose, and spring to lament the end of the day or season, as well as youth.

The spring and rose refer to the fading youth. The nightingale is a bird of youth, once it leaves our branches, flies off to who-knows-where. 

Analysis of Rubaiyath

The Rubaiyat has the setting and mood of a philosophical poem. The quatrains 68 to 73 reflect the poet's reflections on the mystery of creation, the brevity of life, the futility of worrying and the difficulty in understanding the purpose of life. The poet advocates the wisdom of enjoying life while it lasts. The narrator's voice becomes the principal unifying element in the poem.

The poet speaks of the cup of existence being filled with the "Wine of Life". One better drinks it before the wine drains away slowly. The rose symbolizes that people will be gone forever. Spring refers to the regeneration of life, but the poet strongly believes in living in the present, as life once lost can never be reclaimed. Adhering to Epicureanism, he says, life is short, and everyone becomes dust and never returns. One is advised to live in the present and not to worry about the past or future.

The setting reminds the poet of the cyclic nature of life. Spring renews the earth, but it vanishes as fast as a rose. The poet refers to the quick passage of youth. The poet's scepticism is brought to light as he recalls how little he learned from the 'men of wisdom'. All he learnt is that one has no control over one's existence. One is a puppet in the hands of a whimsical creator. Human intelligence cannot help in transcending death. It is futile to worry about the purpose of life or hope for the afterlife.

The poet advocates wine as the antidote for reason's inability to see into the darkness. The wine offers a hedonistic [based on a belief that pleasure is the most important thing in life] escape from the meaninglessness of life. Wine does not offer an escape from life but an escape into it. Though he agrees that wine has often compromised his reputation, it is the wine that also gives him the courage to accept life.

The reference to spring and winter refers to a journey through the mind of a philosophical poet pondering the mystery of human existence.