Structuralism

What is Structuralism?

Structuralism is a philosophical approach that originated in France in the 1950s. It was not limited to literature; it shaped fields like anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and philosophy. At its heart lies a simple but powerful insight: nothing can be understood in isolation. Nothing has meaning by itself. Every object, word, or custom gains meaning only through its relation to a larger system.

Think of language. A word like tree does not have meaning on its own. Its meaning comes from the way English, as a language, organises words and from the differences between words such as tree, bush, and shrub. Structuralists argued that the same principle applies to culture, literature, and even myths: everything is part of a structure, and meaning arises from that structure.

It is important to note that these structures are not physical objects. They are mental frameworks such as patterns, codes, and rules that humans create in order to organise and make sense of the world. Meaning, therefore, is not hidden inside things; it is produced through relationships within a system.

The Foundations of Structuralism

Structuralism grew out of the work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. His ideas on language deeply influenced modern thought. Structuralists argued that meaning does not come from single words or objects. It comes from their place within a larger system of relations and differences. For example, the word tree is meaningful only because it is not bush or shrub.

This approach soon spread beyond linguistics. The anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss applied it to myths and kinship systems. He showed that even cultural practices are shaped by hidden structures. Myths from different societies, for instance, are often built on binary oppositions—life and death, nature and culture, male and female.

In this way, structuralism became a method of study. It asked us to look not only at individual things, but also at the systems and patterns that give them meaning.

Structuralism in Literary Theory and Criticism

When structuralism entered literary studies in the 1960s, it changed the way critics thought about texts. Earlier approaches, such as New Criticism, had focused on the text itself, treating it as a self-contained object to be closely read. Structuralism challenged this by arguing that a text cannot be fully understood on its own. It is always influenced by the rules, patterns, and traditions of literature.

A structuralist critic does not ask, “What did the author intend?” but rather, “What system of rules makes this text possible?” In this view, the author is not the sole creator of meaning, but a participant in a larger system of literary language. Likewise, the reader is not just a person with feelings, but someone who understands the text through shared rules and conventions.

Core Ideas in Structuralist Criticism

Structuralist critics focus on structures, rules, and systems. Literature is seen as a network of signs, not as an expression of personal emotions or reflections of reality. Just as language has grammar, literature has conventions of narrative, genre, and symbolism. For example, a “hero” is meaningful only because there exists a “villain” or some opposing force. A “beginning” in a story is significant because it sets up the possibility of an “ending.” Meaning comes from these relationships. This shift meant that critics began to analyse texts through patterns and oppositions rather than through authorial intention or reader response.

Methods and Approaches

Structuralist critics often look at the patterns behind a text rather than just the text itself.

·       Genres and Conventions: Every piece of writing belongs to a type or tradition. For example, John Donne’s poem The Good Morrow is linked to the alba or “dawn song,” where lovers feel sad when the morning separates them. Knowing this helps us see that the poem’s meaning is not only from Donne’s words but also from how it plays with that tradition.

·       Binary Oppositions: Structuralists say that stories often use opposites to create meaning—like love versus hate, life versus death, or city versus village. For instance, in many fairy tales, the contrast between good and evil is what drives the story. Without these opposites, the meaning would not be as clear.

·       Narrative Structures: Stories also follow common patterns. Roland Barthes explained that stories are full of “codes,” such as puzzles that make us curious (Who is the murderer? What will happen next?) or actions that keep the story moving. Tzvetan Todorov added that most stories go through three stages: a calm beginning (equilibrium), a problem or disruption, and finally, a return to balance. For example, in Cinderella, life is peaceful, then trouble comes with the stepmother, and in the end, balance is restored when she marries the prince.

The Impact of Structuralism

When structuralism reached Britain and the USA in the 1970s, it created a storm. It challenged established approaches like New Criticism, which had valued the close reading of single texts. Structuralism opened up broader questions: What makes something literary? How do narratives function? What rules and systems lie beneath cultural practices?

By shifting attention from individual works to the wider structures of meaning, structuralism transformed literary studies. It paved the way for later theories such as poststructuralism, deconstruction, and semiotics, which further interrogated how meaning is produced and interpreted.

Major Theorists of Structuralism

• Ferdinand de Saussure - Known as the father of structural linguistics. He showed that language works as a system of signs (signifier + signified).
• Claude Lévi-Strauss - Used structuralist methods in anthropology. He studied myths, kinship, and cultural practices, showing how they are built on hidden patterns like binary oppositions (nature/culture, life/death).
• Roland Barthes - Brought structuralism into literary and cultural studies. He analysed how myths, advertisements, and literature all follow systems of meaning.
• Tzvetan Todorov - Focused on narrative theory. He explained how most stories follow a pattern: balance → disruption → return to balance.
• Gérard Genette - Developed narratology. He studied narrative structures in detail, especially time (order, duration, frequency), perspective (who tells the story), and narrative levels.